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Stephen Hawking, Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, once
told a story of a public lecture given by philosopher-scientist Bertrand
Russell, who was describing the solar system: how the moon rotates
about the earth, how the earth circles the sun; how the sun circles
with other stars in the galaxy. At the close of his address, a listener
in the audience chastised him, saying, 'What you've told us is a load
of rubbish. Everyone knows the earth's a flat plate on the back of
a giant turtle."
Russell gave a superior smile. 'And what is the turtle standing on?'
he asked.
'Huh! You're very clever, young man, very clever,' she said. 'It's
turtles, turtles all the way down."
The point of this anecdote is that what makes sense to one may sound
crazy to someone else. Many reports that have come to us for review
look like flat plates sitting on the backs of turtles. And it's turtles,
turtles all the way down.
Organizing a report requires a sense of logic for a lay out of orderliness
and appearance. Writing is one thing. The look and form of the finished
produce is another. Consider, a builder would no more think of constructing
a building without a plan than a power company would build a nuclear
reactor without a design. It is the same with writing.
You must know why you're writing the report in the first place: to
inform, persuade, instruct, obtain funds. In non-fiction writing there
are no other reasons. So before committing your findings to paper you
must have a purpose. Remember Alice and her conversation with the king
about telling a story. He said, 'Begin at the beginning and go on till
you reach the end, then stop.' Lewis Carroll, who wrote Alice in Wonderland,
was a mathematician first and a writer second. This is not a diversion.
Anyone familiar with the structure of Alice in Wonderland knows that
it flows with the logic and simplicity of a mathematical treatise.
Describe what you are going to say, say it, and summarize what you've
said; good advice for anyone, which means having a clear objective.
OBJECTIVE An objective is another way of saying 'What's the purpose, aim, point?
What do you want to achieve?' This you need to know because will dictate
the way you go about reaching your goal. Take an example.
A high school student wants to become a surgeon. The objective in this case is simple: to be a surgeon. The plan to meet the goal would be to: finish high school with sufficient success to get into university; next get into medical school; do an internship; spend another seven years of hard labour specializing in surgery.
Take another case. Suppose the report deals with an audit conducted
on a radiation protection programme in the radiation department and
radioisotope storage section of a cancer treatment hospital. The audit
revealed poor housekeeping and records management. What would be the
objective of the report? To get the hospital to bring its housekeeping
up to measurable accreditation standards and to correct its record
keeping, surely? It would not be to impress someone in higher authority
with how well you, the auditor, have done your job. Yet is surprising
how frequently audit reports stress the qualifications of the auditing
team and its auditing experience.
PLANNING A REPORT There are two ways of writing a report. One, you can write spontaneously
and hope to get everything down in black and white when revising the
text. The alternative is to take a clinical approach to make sure not
one aspect of the subject is overlooked. Apart from pointers to editing
and the use of language, which has already been covered, we can offer
no further advice on the first option. We can help with the second.
In general, reporting information is achieved in three stages, which you should not confuse with the form and lay out of the document. First, record and sort the facts; next, discuss and interpret the implications; lastly, offer conclusions, implications and if part of the requirements, recommendations.
If reporting the results of an audit, where you went may be fact, but
it has no bearing on the audit findings. Many reports are full of extraneous
detail of this kind, which is why it is sound advice to record and
sort the facts first.
Next, decide what conclusions are to be drawn from the facts. Thoughtful
conclusions are without limit. Do the results suggest people simply
don't care? that they are not adequately trained? that they're too
busy with other things? What will happen if the client doesn't correct
the situation? These are conclusions one can draw, but they are not
recommendations.
How to correct the faults you find can form the basis of what you recommend.
In this regard, specific recommendations are better than vague ones.
'Give proof of correction by a given date' is a recommendation.
'Reduce the number of electrical jumpers by half within twelve months'
is another. To counsel that someone be told of the problem is a recommendation
perhaps, but not a good one. It merely transfers the problem to someone
else.
These things are basic to good reporting. They come first, but they're
not the report.
Organisations may have a standard format for documents. [If so, this
is not obvious from the many large government departments with which
we had dealt.]
If you have recorded the facts, made notes of your conclusions and
what you recommend, all in point form, the rest of the document is
easy. For example, you cannot write an introduction until you know
what you have to introduce. Reports can have as many as fourteen identifiable
sections depending on the scope and complexity of the subject. It is
the writer's job to select headings and to choose the form and style
of the report that seem most suitable. Nevertheless, a large subject
will need a combination of one or more of these elements.
1. FRONT SHEET The front sheet is a title page that gives the subject title, author's name, date and, in many organizations, the names and signatures of those who review and approve the document. The front sheet can also carry an identifying code and revision notation. An alpha-numeric designation is standard practice for departments of government and large institutions. The cover sheet may also carry a distribution list and an extract, summary, or synopsis of the report. 2. CONTENTS The use of a contents sheet is a matter of preference. At the lower end of the scale, a two-page report doesn't warrant a contents page; a fifty-page report does. The contents should be a simple list of main headings. An example would be the contents page of these articles printed in manual form. This gives headings and page numbers. Content pages do not need the listing of sections and sub-sections. If considerable details is considered necessary, we recommend the use of an index section at the end of the book or report. 3. SUMMARY A summary, abstract, précis, or synopsis is best written when the body of the report is complete. A summary should be that and no more, a short statement that describes what the report is about. It is the equivalent of what editors write on the inside dust cover of a book to interest a prospective reader. Here is a summary from a paper written for an international symposium, Development of a Maintenance Program. In this instance, the word' abstract' was used to describe the' summary'.
In this seventy-three word statement, the author summarized the paper in plain language. A summary in 100 words or less is the ideal. 4. INTRODUCTION Every subject must be introduced. Having read the summary, the reader
wants to know why the report deserves to be read. You have a purpose
in writing the report and it is as well to say so. It is not always
necessary to use the heading INTRODUCTION. That the first words of
a report are the introduction is obvious to the reader. On the other
hand, if your organization's house style requires you to have such
a heading you have no choice in the matter; provide it.
The length of the report will govern the length of the introduction
although, as so often in writing practice, there are no hard and fast
rules. Commonsense should be your guide. The main point about an introduction
is that it should be interesting.
Some good examples of introductions were quoted in the chapters on language. Recall the opening of the Chuse book Pressure Vessels, which he introduced by reference to the Brockton disaster in 1905. An effective and compelling opening can be written for any report. Here is an imaginative introduction to the subject of ventilation in Kitchen Ventilation Systems by Thomas E. Carter.
'More than 5000 years ago, the Egyptians built ventilation shafts into
the pyramids to provide the artisans working in the dusty vaults and
passageways with a constant supply of cool, fresh air. Visitors to
the Giza pyramids still benefit from the built-in ventilation system
of the ancient builders when they are inside the massive structures.
Without that cooling ventilation, the atmosphere in the dimly lit passageways
and tunnels would soon become exceedingly stale and stifling.'
For an investigative report, the introduction might be a convenient
place in which to state its purpose, the problem - if it deals with
one - and the method used to analyze the facts. Some report writers
describe their analytical procedure under the heading of 'methodology',
which might be necessary when dealing with controversial data or conclusions
that might be challenged. In general, however, a description of the
method used to deal with data is unnecessary.
5. FACTS Presentation of the facts is the next logical step. This is also the stage at which the advice one can give is limited. Much depends on the complexity of the subject and the division of the component parts. If, for example, you are dealing with the site selection and construction of a hospital, it will be important to discuss the facts relating to:
Yet, whatever the subject, the presentation of facts is of prime importance. They form the substance on which you are going to build a case. Give your reader the opportunity to consider the data before you present the argument. The facts may involve lengthy support material; source documents; references to what in many industries are termed traceable documents: information obtained from interviews; the results of research; and computer data. Almost without exception, support documents from which facts are derived should be named only; then, and only if necessary and not for padding, included as part of the appendices. 6. DISCUSSION If you have presented the facts in a logical order, the sequence of what occurred in the case of an investigation, or the connective ideas you derive from the facts will occur naturally. This is the place to make use of opinions expressed by people you have interviewed.
In the presentation of facts you say, in effect, 'Here are the facts
relating to the subject'; in the discussion you are saying, 'This is
how I, or others, interpret them.'
Inductive and deductive analysis can only be touched on as an interesting
aside. In the exercise of imagination, however, this is where the technical
writer is on an equal footing with the fiction writer. Analysis is
the heart of the report, the place where you will convince readers
or leave them unconvinced.
In the study Life Cycle Costing for military
applications, (Astute Defence Systems, 1986), life cycle costing for a particular
type of military hardware is discussed. Three costing systems are mentioned,
but no conclusions are drawn nor recommendations made.
Discussion and argument persuade the reader to accept your point of view. You will more likely achieve your purpose - whatever that may be - by confining yourself to plain discussion at this stage of your report. 7. SAFETY The time has long since passed when the safety aspects of any subject could be left solely to safety officers and government agencies. Almost all industries and disciplines must be concerned with public and employee safety. It is therefore a good idea to ask yourself if safety warrants discussion in your report, and to deal with it as the subject merits. 8. COST When accountants talk about the 'bottom line' they mean the profit
or loss position when all the figures are taken into account. The same
is true for the majority of topics covered by technical reports, there
being few subjects that do not involve some consideration of cost. 9. CONCLUSIONS The conclusions you draw should come as no surprise to the reader. If your discussion is sound, your conclusion or conclusions should be the natural outcome of what has gone before. Depending on the size of the report, it may be sensible to combine the conclusions with your recommendations. There should be no confusion, however, between a conclusion and a recommendation; as earlier noted, they are not the same.
To illustrate the difference between the two, consider first the conclusions
reached in an investigator's report on a problem a corporation encountered
with its spare parts. The writer concluded that the tagging information
on spare parts was inadequate; (this was evident from the facts presented
in the earlier part of the report). He concluded that poor tagging
information would result in:
10. RECOMMENDATIONS Following the previous section - Conclusions - the investigator made these recommendations.
As is obvious from the example of the spare parts report, there is a clear distinction between the writer's conclusions and recommendations. 11. REFERENCES References provide evidence of the accuracy of your facts and support your discussion, conclusions and recommendations. The addition of references also acknowledges the work of others on whose efforts and results you have relied. For an example of the use of references, see the acknowledgement of other works and papers used in this book. 12. TABLES AND FIGURES Tables, figures, sketches, drawings and illustrations referred to should be contained sequentially in the tables and figures section. If a large number is included, remember to identify each one clearly. Some writers provide separators to make it easy for the reader to locate the material referenced in the text. In any case, make the tables, figures and other material included easy to find by using clear textual references. 13. APPENDICES Writers frequently find it expedient to add appendices in the way of manufacturers' brochures, the complete paper of another authority on a subject discussed, or drawings and sketches. This is a matter of selection and organization. 14. INDEX An index is sometimes a help to the reader. Index preparation is time--consuming work and should not be done unless you see a real benefit. For those who have the use of computer software programmes, an index-compiling program makes the task easier than when it is done by hand. (The index of this book was prepared on a computer programme.) WRITING OUTLINE In Chapter 4, Getting Started, we deferred discussion of the writing outline. Having worked through the elements in this chapter you will understand why. If you agree that a technical report can contain the parts discussed above, you will concede that here is the basis of your outline. To emphasize this recommendation, the possible combination of the report elements is repeated.
An outline is like the structural framework of a building, to repeat
a simile. The experienced builder needs a structure before he fits
the doors, windows, plumbing, heating and does the outside finishing.
The experienced writer needs a writing outline for the same reason.
Use the headings listed about as a basis for your outline. You need
to decide which to use. Only the largest report requires the use of
every heading discussed and most reports contain fewer than those listed.
You may need to re-arrange them to suit your own purposes. You can
start by sorting the information you have gathered into one or more
of the main outline topics.
Let us suppose that you have compiled your research notes and references
on 3" x 5" cards (a good practice used by many professional
writers before computers came into common use). You can now separate
facts, discussion, opinions, and recommendations. Once this is done,
develop your outline to include the various sub-headings and topics
you want to write about. Part of the outline for a Department of National
Defence manual, Energy Management Handbook, looked like this.
Example: Facts The cost of energy and conservation element is more detailed than
the heating and cooling plant element and is used to illustrate how
the writing outline can be developed.
To press the point, the more developed your outline the easier it will
be to draft the report. Nothing is more important in the preparation
and organizing of a technical report than the outline.
REPORT LAY-OUT The physical lay out of a report, any document for that matter, may
be appear to be an aesthetic topic unworthy of discussion. On the contrary,
it can improve the appearance of the text, make it more readable because
it is more pleasing to the eye. You write to inform, and often to persuade
your reader of the logic of your argument. The visual appearance of
the document produce should concern you.
We divide the physical appearance of the report into two parts. First
there is the section and paragraph numbering; second, the lay-out of
the text on the page. Let simplicity and clarity be your guide.
Figures 1 through 8 illustrate a variety of lay-outs, with and without
illustrations. With desktop publishing software they are all easy to
produce.
When numbering the passages of the text, avoid the overuse of alpha-numeric
designations of paragraphs, sub-paragraphs, indented texts and quotations.
Figure 1 shows what happens to the page when numbers and letters are
used to excess. Hence, minimize paragraph and sub-paragraph numbering.
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